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[sangkancil] The Cholas: Evolution
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A BRIEF HISTORICAL SURVEY ON
MEDIEVAL CHOLAS AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH THE CHERAS {KERALAS} OF THE
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
{A.D.801 - A.D 1120}
Introduction
During the periods of the nineth and the tenth centuries, the Chera country
was ruled by three
principal royal dynasties known as the Ayes, Venads and Kulasekaras from
three distinctive
regions of Kerala (the Sanskritised version of Chera), and the kings of
these three dynasties and
the other Chieftains ruling small regions of rest of the Kerala, all were
generally referred to as the
Cheras or Keralas by the people of Chola & Pandiya countries of this period.
The Aye dynasty were ruling a region covering from the present Nagerkoil of
Tamil Nadu the
southern end of the Aye kingdom, upwards into Kerala to the present
Anjuthengu in the north of
the present Thiruvananthapuram, and was known as Aye Nadu. Their capital was
at Vilignam a
seaport city south of Thiruvananthapuram. The Aye Nadu also included the
Kanthalursalai - a
military and Vedic studies acadamy and an armoury centre of the Aye kings,
and was located
deep south beyond the Vilignam along the sea coast closer to Nagerkoil the
southern end of the
Aye kingdom.
The Venad dynasty were ruling a region beyond Anjuthengu covering a region
upto Kottayam,
known formally as Venadu and also as Kollam Desam with their capital at
Kollam (proper), also a
seaport city on the west Kerala.
The Kulasekara dynasty were ruling a region of Kerala beyond Kottayam
further north upto and
around the present region of Kolikkodu (Calicut) and known as Kudamalai
Nadu, with their capital
at Mahodayapuram (Kodungolur) a seaport city also known as Makothai, and a
second interior
capital known as Uthakai in the Kongu country of that period (the present
Udhagamandalam
region of the Tamil Nadu, bordering the Kerala also known as Udhagai), which
was under their
rule during this period.
Unlike the Aye and the Venad dynasty, the vast territory ruled by Kulasekara
dynasty covered
many small regions called "Nadus" under different names, which were ruled by
the local
Chieftans who accepted the authority of the Kulasekara dynasty, and ruled
their respective regions
as subordinates to them.
The Chera kings from A.D.801 up to the advent of Vijayalaya Chola
Towards the beginning of the nineth century{i.e. A.D.801} a powerful Chera
king known as
Kulasekaran {A.D.801-820} was ruling in Kudamalainadu of the Kerala country
covering the length
of the Kolli - Malai (hills) regions in central and north Kerala, from his
capital at Mahodayapuram.
He has claimed for himself the titles "Kolik-kon", "Kudal-nayagan", "Kongar
Kon" confirming his
authority over Koliyur (the Uraiyur of the Chola country), and Kudal (the
Madurai of the Pandiya
country), and also over the Kongu country. It was probably during this
period the Uthahai became
the second capital of the Kulasekara dynasty with a member of the Kulasekara
family appointed
to rule over this region.
Kulasekaran was an ardent devotee of - Sri Rama (regarded as an incarnation
of God Vishnu),
and hence the Vaishnavites of this period referred to him as Kulasekara
Perumal in reverence.
He made pilgrimages to Thiruvarangam (Sri Rangam) in Cholanadu, and
Thiruvenkatam
(Thiruppathi) in Thondainadu - among others, and has composed a set of
hyms - in Tamil in
praise of God Vishnu named as "Perumal Thirumoli", and in Sanskrit named as
"Muhunda Mala".
He abdicated the Chera throne to lead a holy life and was venerated as one
of the twelve great
Tamil Vaishnava Saints, known as the Kulasekara Alvar.
The Chera king Kulasekaran had a son by the name Rajasekaran. With the
abdication of
Kulasekara from Chera throne, his son Rajasekaran{A.D.820-844} became the
king of the Chera
country. He was also known by the name Cheraman Perumal and unlike his
father was an ardent
devotee of God Siva.
Rajasekaran while ruling the Chera country from Mahodayapuram spent most of
his time in
religious activities and in meditation at the Siva Temple in
Thiruvanjaikkalam at Kodungolur
(Mahodayapuram) in the Kerala country. It was during this time one of the
great Tamil Saiva
Saint of Tamil Nadu - the Sundaramurthi Nayanar made a pilgrimage to the
Thiruvarur Temple in
the Chola country. The Chera king Rajasekaran with utmost desire to meet
this great Tamil Saiva
Saint, also went to Thiruvarur at this same time.
Here with the blessings of God Siva of Thiruvarur the Chera king composed
hyms in Tamil in his
praise known as "Mummanikkovai". From there he went along with the Tamil
Saint Sundarmurthi
Nayanar to the Siva shrine at Vedaranniyam in the Chola country and other
Siva Shrines all over
the Pandiya country. He composed further hyms in Tamil in praise of God Siva
known as
"Ponnvanna Anthathi" and "Thirukkalyana Gnana Ulla" and became to be known
and venerated
as Cheraman Perumal Nayanar. All the above hyms composed by him have been
included in the
eleventh "Thirumurai" (Thirumurais are a collection of the sacred hyms in
Tamil, sung on God
Siva by various Tamil Saiva Saints of TamilNadu and few from the Kerala
State).
Finally at the eager request of the Cheraman Perumal Nayanar the Tamil Saiva
Saint
Sundaramurthi Nayanar opted to visit the palace of this Chera king at his
capital city of
Mahodaiyapuram in the Chera country travelling through Kongunadu the present
Udagamandalam
(Udagai) region of TamilNadu.
While being here in A.D.844 the Saint Sundaramurthi Nayanar died. Unable to
bear the grief of
the death of this great Saint, the Cheraman Perumal Nayanar too met his
death soon thereafter in
the same year.
It was during the period of the Chera king Kulasekaran and partly during the
period of the Chera
king Rajasekaran, the great Saiva Saint of Chera (Kerala) country namely the
Sankaracharya who
founded the Advaita doctrine lived in Kerala.
It also appears the Tamil Saiva Saint known as Venattu Adigal from Venad in
the Chera country
though not classified under the sixty-three Tamil Saiva Saints of Tamil
Nadu, the hyms composed
by him named 'Thiruvisaippa" on God Siva of Chidambaram in Chola country,
has been included
in the nineth Thirumurai. It appears the Venattu Adigal lived during a
period after the Tamil Saiva
Saint the Sundaramurthi Nayanar.
The Chera king Rajasekara alias Cheraman Perumal Nayanar was followed by his
son the king
Sthanu Ravi alias Ravi Varma Kulasekaran (alias Ko-Kandan) (A.D.844 - 885)
on the Chera
throne at Mahodayapuram. Sthanu Ravi too was a Saivite like his father. He
had a daughter by
the name Kilanadigal who married king Vijayaragadeva from another Chera
royal family ruling a
part of Kerala.
It was only towards this time - the mid nineth century A.D, the Chola
dynasty emerged more into
limelight, after a long spell in partial or total obscurity in the political
scene of Tamil Nadu for
nearly six centuries.
Period of Vijayalaya Chola {A.D.848-881}
The first among this line of medieval Cholas who came into prominance was
the king Vijayalaya
Chola {A.D.848-881}, who ruled the Chola country from Thanjavur.
It appears that the Chera kings of this period, had very friendly relations
with the Chola country.
The Sthanu Ravi and his daughter both being of Saivite faith, and with the
prevailing good
relations that existed with the Chola country, had made their endowments to
the Siva temples in
the Chola country
In the year A.D.849 during the rule of the Chera king Sthanu Ravi also known
as Ravi Varma
Tribuvanachakravarti Kulasekaradeva, the villagers of the Chalukkipparu has
gifted a village named
Satanur in the Thondainadu to the temple of Siva named as
Tiruayanisuramudaiya Nayanar.
The Chera Queen Kilanadigal provided gold for a lamp at the temple of
Thiruvannamalai in
Thondaimanadu (adjacent to Chola country) in the year A.D..851. The Chera
king (Ko)Kandan
Ravi alias Sthanu Ravi also gifted land for lighting lamp at the temple at
Kuttalam in
Pandiyanadu in the year in the year A.D.870.
Period of Athiththa Chola {A.D.871-907}
In the year A.D.881 with the demise of Vijayalaya Chola his son Athiththa
Chola {A.D.871-907}
succeeded on the Chola throne, who was a co-regent of Vijayalaya from
A.D.871. During the
period of his rule the Athitha Chola waged war on Kongunadu assisted by the
Chera king Sthanu
Ravi, and captured it from the Pandiyan king.
A general named Vikki Annan the chieftan of Kodumbalur was greatly
instrumental in winning this
war by the Cholas, and was rewarded jointly by the Chola & Chera kings with
a crown, palace,
elephants, royal palanquin, drum and the given the title "Sembiyan Thamil
Verl".
Towards the middle of Athitha Chola's rule the Chera king Sthani Ravi died
and was followed by
Rama Varma Kulasekara{A.D.885-917} on the Chera throne.
During this time the Pandiya king Paranthaha Vira Narayanan (A.D.860-905)
married a Chera
Princes named Vanavan Mathevi, and to them was born the Pandiyan king named
Rajasimhan-2
(A.D.900-920).
Period of Paranthaha Chola{A.D.907-953}
Athitha Chola was succeeded by his son Paranthaha Chola (A.D.907-953) on the
Chola throne.
He married Udaiya Pirattiyar Kokkilan Adigal daughter of the Chera king Rama
Varma of
Kulasekara dynasty. He also married the daughter of another Chera king
Paluvettaraiyar Kandan
Amuthan named Arumoli Nangai ruling from west Paluvur of the present
Tirutchirappalli in Tamil
Nadu bordering Kerala. He had a further queen by the name Villavan Mathevi
probably the
daughter of the Venad King of the Chera country, who refer themselves as
"Villavar'.
Paranthaha Chola-1 had an elder son by Kokilanadigal named Rajathithya, a
second son by the
name Gandarathitha and a younger son by Arulmoli Nangai named Arinjayan.
A native of Nandikkaraiputtur in Kerala Country named Velankumaran was the
general of the
Chola Prince Rajathithya. However the Prince Rajaditya died very young in a
war in
Thondainadu.
Paranthaha Chola with the intention of annexing the Pandiyanadu waged war
with Pandiya king
Rajasimhan-2. In this war the Chera king Rama Varma Kulasekara assisted
Paranthaha.
Rajasimhan-2 was defeated and went to Sri Lanka, and with the assistance of
the king of Sri
Lanka fought back with Paranthaha and his allies namely the Pallavas and the
Chera king
Ranma Varma at Thirupurambiyam. But he was defeated and again took refuge in
Sri Lanka.
As Rajasimhan didnot receive further assistance from the Sri Lankan king for
a second expedition
in regaining his throne, returned to the Chera Country of his mother.
The matrimonial alliance of Paranthaha Chola with the foremost among the
royal families of
Kerala country namely the Kulasekara dynasty, paved way for the friendly
relations that existed
beteween these two countries to increase many folds. During this period
there seems to have
been an inflow of people from Chera country to the Chola country, some of
whom even worked
for the Chola king.
The Kokkilan Adigal daughter of this Chera king (and the queen of Paranthaha
Chola) the has
provided gold for expenses for lighting lamps at the temple at Lalgudi in
Cholanadu in the year
A.D.923.
In this same year of A.D.923 Alala-arisilar Kumaran a native of the
Kodungolur (Mahodayapuram)
of (Kuda)Malainadu of Kerala country gifted gold for lampstand at the temple
Thirunallakuntram in
Kudumiyam\nmalai in Cholanadu
In this same year another native also from Kodungolur of Malainadu gifted
gold for a lamp at the
temple at Kudumiyanmalai in Cholanadu.
In the year A.D.926 queen Kokkilan Adigal has provided gold for lighting
lamps at the temple at
Thiruvidaimaruthur in Thanjavur.
She also ordered the construction of a stone temple named
Thiruththondiswarem at Thirunavalur in
Chola country. During her time a tank has been constructed near Tribuwani
(near present
Pondicherry) and named after her as Kokkilanadi-pereri in Chola country.
There has been a native of the Chera country known as Kerala Kurumban given
a high office in
the Chola kingdom by Paranthaha Chola with the title Parakesari Mevenda
Velar whose wife
made gifts to the the temple as Tiruvottriyur in the year A.D.927.
In the year A.D 936 Ravi Nili the daughter of Chera king Vijayaragadevar
(who was inturn the
Son-in Law of earlier Chera king Sthanu Ravi) provided thirty kalanju (a
measure) of gold for
lighting lamp to the Mahadeva at the temple of Thiruvottriyur in Thondainadu
which was under
Chola rule.
Another native of Kodungolur (Mahodayapuram) of Malainadu (Kudamalainadu) in
Kerala country in
the year A.D.936 donated a lamp to the temple at Thiruchanur in
Thondaimandalam.
In the year A.D.943 the Kerala general Velankumaran of Prince Rajathithya
(eldest son of
Paranthaha Chola) built a stone temple to Arruttali Mahadeva at Mudiyur on
the Pennar river in
Thondaimandalam.
Sheep for maintaing lamp was given to the temple at Thirumalpuram in
Thondainadu by Puvan
Maran a native of Nediyatali of Kodungolur (Mahodayapuram) in the Kerala
country in the year
A.D.948.
Another native of Kodungolur in Malainadu donated lands to the presiding God
Perumal at the
Thiruvenkadu temple in Thanjavur A.D.952
Towards this time with the demise of the Chera king Rama Varma, the king
Kothai Ravi
Varma{A.D.917-947} succeeded on the Chera throne at Mahodayapuram the
capital of
Kudamalainadu in Kerala country.
After thirty years of rule Kothai Ravi Varma was followed by Indukotha
Varma{A.D. 944-962} on
the Chera throne at Mahodayapuram.
Period of Gandarathitha Chola {A.D.950-957}
After Paranthaha-1, his second son of Gandarathithya Chola (A.D..950-957)
ascended the Chola
throne after being a co-regent with Paranthaha Chola from A.D.953. Though he
was the Chola
king his thoughts were always around God Siva leading a more religious life,
and with his
blessings have composed religious hyms in Tamil known as "Thiruvisaippa"
which have been
included in the nineth Thirumurai.)
Period of Arinjaya Chola {A.D.956-957}
He was followed by Arinjaya Chola (A.D.956-957) who succeeded to the Chola
throne. He too
married the daughter of the Chera king the Indukothai Ravi Varma named
Athithan Kothai
Piratiyar.
Period of Sundera Chola {A.D. 957-970}
With the premature death of Arinjaya Chola his son the Sundera Chola
ascended the Chola
throne. He married the daughter of the Malaiyaman king of Thirukkovalur in
Thondainadu named
Udaya Piratiyar Thambiranadigal Vanavanmatheviyar alias
Thiribhuvanamatheviyar and also
Paranthahan Theviammanar daughter of a Chera king , and to the former was
born the great
Chola king RajaRaja-1.
During this period the Chera king Indukotha Varma was succeeded by Bhaskara
Ravi Varma
-1{A.D.962-1019} at Mahodayapuram. Baskara Ravi Varma - 2{A.D.979-1014}
appears to have
assisted Bhakara Ravi Varma - 1 in ruling his vast Chera empire which
stretched from the
present Calicut to Tiruvanandapuram region encompassing the Kudamalainadu,
Kongunadu and
Venad, as his co-regent probably from Uthahai in the Kongu region which was
under the Chera
rule during this period.
Period of Uthama Chola {A.D. 970-985}
After the demise of Sundera Chola his son Rajaraja - 1 was the legitimate
heir to the Chola
throne, but he whole heartedly gave way to Uthama Chola (A.D.970-985) the
son of Gandarathitha
Chola being his paternal uncle to rule for some period.
Uthama Chola had among others, a queen named Panchavanmatheviyar who was the
daughter of
the Chera king Paluvettaraiyar known as Kandan Sundera Cholan.
Period of Rajaraja Chola -1 {A.D.985-1014}
Uthama Chola died in the year A.D.985, and was succeeded by the heir
apparent Rajaraja
Chola-1{A.D.985-1014} on the Chola throne.
Rajaraja Chola - 1 too married a daughter of the Malaiyaman king of
Tirukkovalur in Thondainadu
named Vanavanmathevi, who was also as Thiribhuvanamadevi.
One of his other queens was Villavanmathevi the daughter of the king of
Venadu of Chera
country. He also had a queen known as Panchavanmathevi who was the daughter
of
Paluvettaraiyar Kandan Maravan the Chera king of Paluvur on the west of
Thirutchirappalli
bordering Kerala state. It was to this Vanavanmadevi the greatest emperor in
the Chola history
namely the Rajendra Chola - 1 was born.
With the accession of Rajaraja Chola-1 on the Chola throne and with his
imperialistic ambitions
over South India, found that it was necessary initially to overcome the
powerfull Cheras.
During the rule of Rajaraja-1 and the earlier Chola kings the Aye dynasty of
the Chera country
over period of time had built up a military and Vedic acadamy and an arsenal
centre at Kandalur
Salai which was located south of Thiruvananthapuram, and produced great
trained warriors.
Rajaraja Chola-1 realised the destruction of the supply lines of these
trained warriors and armoury
to the Aye kings of Chera(Kerala) country and to their Pandiyan ally namely
Amarabujangan, was
an absolute necessity initialy in order to win the southern region of the
Chera and Pandiya
countries ruled by these two powerfull kings.
Rajaraja-1 waged war on the Kandalursalai for th first time in A.D.988, and
it appears he only
partly destroyed this military acadamy. But it appears the Cheras reinstated
their positions again in
Kandalursalai and continued with the functions of their military acadamy and
arsenal centre.
This made Rajaraja Chola-1 to wage war again on Kandalursali in the year
A.D.995, and
effectively destroyed the Kandalursalai military acadamy and arsenal centre,
and defeated the
ruling Aye king of Kerala country and captured his capital the seaport city
of Vilignam.
The Aye Kingdom comprised of Nanchilnadu & Valluvanadu. The Rajaraja Chola
after his capture
of Aye kingdom re-named a village called Muttam in Valluvanadu into
Mummudicholanallur a
subdivision of Rajarja Tennadu (Aye Nadu).
Here to the temple known as Tirunandikkarai he donated grants in the year
A.D.1003 and ordered
in the month of Iyppasi (October/November) a festival to be celebrated
ending on the day of
Sadaya nakshaththiram (his birth star), on which day the image of the God at
the temple of
Tirunandiikkarai was to be bathed in the river and a perpetual lamp named
Rajarajan to be lit
every day.
He now turned his attention on his conquest of the territories in the
Karnataka country,
Kudamalainadu, and the Kongu region of the present Tamilnadu. Chola king
Rajaraja-1 thereafter
sent an ambassador to the co-regent of the king Baskara Ravi Varma-1 of
Mahodai ruling from
Uthahai (present Udhagamandalam also known as Udagai), namely Baskara Ravi
Varma -2
probably a member from the family of Kulasekaras, requesting him to submit
to Chola suzerainty
and to pay tributes.
The Chola ambassador was humilated by the Chera co-regent of Uthahai and was
put to prison
at Uthahai, which enraged Rajaraja Chola-1 who sent a large expedition to
Uthahai probably in
the year A.D.1014 which was destroyed and the city was captured and it
appears Baskara Ravi
Varma - 2 met his death and Kongunadu was controlled by Cholas.
The Chola forces further moved into the Kudamalainadu the north and central
regions of Kerala
state and defeated Baskara Ravivarman Thiruvadi (Baskara Ravi Varaman - 1)
the ruling king of
the Kulasekara dynasty, and captured his capital Mahadayapuram (Kodungolur).
It appears Baskara
Ravi Varman - 1 too accepted the Chola suzerainty and continued to rule from
Mahodayapuram
in the Kerala country paying tributes. This brought all the territories of
Chera country ruled by the
other chieftans which were under Baskara Ravi Varman - 1 too to accept the
Chola supremacy.
The Chola forces moved further into the Venad territory (Kolladesam) and
captured the the region
along with its seaport capital the Kollam(proper), which were at this time
ruled by the chieftain
Govardhana Marttanda appointed by king Baskara Ravi Varman - 1 of the
Mahodayapuram in
Kudamalainadu.
Period of Rajendra Chola - 1 {A.D.1012 - 1044}
Rajaraja Chola - 1 died in the year A.D.1014 and was succeeeded by his son
Rajendra Chola
- 1 on the chola throne after being a co-regent with Rajaraja Chola from
A.D1012.
During the period of Rajendra Chola - 1, in the year A.D.1019, with the
agitation for freedom by
the king Baskara Ravi Varman - 1 of Kerala, he sent a war expedition under
the leadership of
his second son Manukulakesari to Kudamalainadu in the Chera country who
defeated the Chera
King Baskara Ravi Varma - 1 captured his capital Mahothai and secured his
crown, diadem and
an island called Santhimathivu belonging to the Kerala king beyond Kerala in
Arabic sea. In this
war Baskara Ravi Varman - 1 met his death.
With the his securing of the Chera crown the Rajendra Chola - 1 assumed the
new title as
Mudikonda Cholan. Rajendra Chola -1 gave the title "Chola Keralan" to his
second son
Manukulakesari and appointed him as the chola viceroy to rule the captured
Kudamalai Nadu of
the Kerala country.
However with the necessaity of he having to lead a war expedition with
eastern Chalukiya king,
he was recalled back from Chera country in the year A.D.1021, while
appointing the Chera king
Veera Keralan{A.D1021-1028} son of Baskara Ravi Varman to rule on accepting
the Chola
suzerainty.
Manululakesari met his death at the Chola-Chalukya war, and his father
Rajendra Chola in his
memory built a temple at Jayamaliswarem in A.D.1023 and built a Salai for
providing food named
as Chola-Keralan Chalai and for revenue for its expenses gifted a village
named Chola-Kerala
Nallur.
Rajendra Chola - 1 in memory of his mother after her death made a statue of
herself and
installed at the temple known as Sembianmathevi at Nagapattinam and made
arrangements for its
worship. In Sri Lanka too at Polonnaruwa Rajendra Chola built a temple by
the name
Vanavanmathevi Iswarem in her memory.
Rajendra Chila -1 had a queen named as Panchavanmathevi daughter of the
Chera king
Paluvettariyar and another by the name Vananvanmadevi daughter of the king
Malaiyaman of
Kovalur.
Rajendra Chola built a new imperial capital named as Gangaikondasolapuram
west of present
Chidambaram and there he built his new royal palace and named it as "Keralan
Maligai"
commemorating his victory over Kerala kings.
Period of Rajadiraja Chola - 1 {A.D.1018-1054}
With the death of Rajendra Chola - 1 in A.D.1044 his eldest son the
Rajadhiraja Chola - 1
{A.D.1018-1054} who had been a co-regent of Rajendra Chola since A.D.1018
succeeded on the
Chola throne. When he ascended the throne among the countries that were
still under the Chola
control, was the Mahodayapuram of the Kerala country.
During this period the Chera kings of the Kulasekara dynasty at Mahodai and
of Venadu were
agitating to get their freedom. Rajadhiraja - 1 to contain these agitations
sent forces which first
proceeded to Mahodayapuram and defeated the Chera king Veera Keralan in
A.D.1028, who was
put to death by his elephant Atthivaranam.
He appointed Rajasimhan{1028-1043} the son of Vira Kerala as the Chera King
on he having
accepted the Chola suzerainty, who continued to rule from Mahodai paying
tributes to Cholas, and
had friendly relations with them for some time.
This fact is surmised from the fact that the Gopalaswami Temple at Mannar
Kovil in Tirunelveli
pandiya was built by the Chera king Rajasimha, but was named by him as
Rajendra Chola
Vinnagar. Rajendra Chola too has made a grant of land to this temple in
A.D.1042
Further in the 14th year of the Sunder Chola Pandiya devar at Mannar Koyil
in Tinnelveli the
Seralan Madeviyar Adicchi queen of the Chera king Rajasimhadevar made some
donations to this
Rajendra Chola Vinnagar Alvar.
Again in Venad the new king of Govardhana Marthanda started agitating for
freedom assisted by
the chieftain known as Ramakuda Muvar of the region Koovaham also of Kerala.
Rajadiraja sent
an expedition to Venad where it's king was defeated and escaped from his
kingdom to the
jungles along with the king of Koovakam, and Rajadhiraja's forces further
destroyed the military
acadamy and arms centre that became active again at Kanthalur Sala,i and
attacked and defeated
Vilignam which revived its efforts under Aye kings to become independent,
and was renamed as
Rajendra Cholapattinam.
However it appears the king of Venad continued to rule accepting the
suzerainty of the Cholas,
and agreeing to pay tributes. Rajasimha was followed by Bhaskara Ravi - 3
{A.D.1043-1082} on
the Chera throne.
Period of Rajendra - 2 {A.D.1051-1063}
In the year A.D.1054 Rajadiraja Chola -1 died in the battle field at Koppam.
Immediately his
younger brother Rajendra Chola - 2{A.D.1051-1063} who was the co-regent with
Rajadhiraja
Chola - 1 from A.D.1051, crowned as the next Chola in the battle field
itself and continued with
the war with success to Cholas.
During this period one of his sons was given the title Chola Keralan in
memory of his elder
brother Manukulakesari who bore the same title as Chola Keralan.
Period of Virarajendra {A.D.1063-1070}
With the demise of Rajendra -2, Virarajendra Chola{A.D.1063-1070} was
crowned as the next
king of the Chola empire. On he ascending the Chola throne, again the Cheras
at Venad and
Mahodayaouram started agiatating to free themselves from the Chola fold.
Virarajendra first sent an
expedition to Venad and killed the younger brother of the Kerala king named
Jananathan, while
the king himself escaped from his country.
Later with the agitation also from the Chera king Bhaskara Ravi - 2, it
necessiated Virarajendra
Chola to go on a renewed war expedition to the great cities of the Chera
country namely the
Uthahai and Mahodai with big elephant cavalry to suppress the agitation. The
Chera king in fear
escaped with his family to safety. He defeating the Chera country returned
back with much
tributes, elephants and maids.
Period of Adhirajendra {A.D1070-1073}
With the death of Virarajendra his son Adirajendra{A.D1070-1074} succeeded
on the Chola throne
in A.D.1070, after being his co-regent from A.D1067. His period of rule
ended within a short
period of few months due to illness.
During this period a Chera chieftain by the name Kerala Kesari
Athirajathirajadever who also bore
the title "Virakeralan" ruling from Kongunadu have made donations to the
temple of Vishnu at
Thirukkannapuram in Thanjavur region for lighting of lamps.
Period of Kulothtunga Chola {A.D1070-1120}
After the death of Adirajendra there has been a turmoil in the Chola country
with no direct male
decendents in the line of the Rajaraja Chola - 1 to succeed.
Eventually the great-grandson of Rajaraja Chola - 1, namely Kulothtunga
Chola - 1
{A.D.1074-1120} became the rightful heir to the chola throne hailing from
the female decendents of
Rajaraja in the year A.D.1074.
Taking opportunity of the turmoil in the Chola country the Chera kings at
Aynad, Venad and
Kudamalainadu agitated to gain freedom from from the Chola kings.
Kulothtunga Chola - 1 in A.D.1081 waged war with the Cheras. He captured
Vilignam,
Kanthalursalai including Kottaru north of Kumari all of Ayenadu. The Chera
king agreed to rule as
a subordinate king and pay tributes. At Kottaru in south Kerala country he
stationd a nilappadai
(ground force) known as Kottaru Nillapadai under the general Araiyan
Mathuranthahan alias Chola
Keralarasan.
Kulothtunga Chola forces further moved to Mahodayapuram in Kudamalainadu in
the Kerala
country and defeated the Chavar forces (suicide sqads) of Baskara Ravi
Varma -3
who also met his death in this war in A.D.1082. He was succeeded by Ravi
Rama Varma
{A.D.1082-1090} on the throne with his acceptance to pay tribute to Cholas.
He was followed by Rama Varma Kulasekara {A.D.1090 - 1102} at Mahodayapuram
throne. It
appears some time after A.D.1090 Rama Varma Kulasekara with his powerful
Chavar forces
defeated the Cholas and regained full power in Kudamalainadu. It seems
Kulothtunga Chola - 1
didnot take any serious attempt to regain the lost territories of the Kerala
country.
It appears this was the ending point of 100 years of intermittant war
between the Cholas and the
Cheras.
The Tamil Temple Inscriptions however mentions a few more Chola-Chera
conflicts after
Kulothtunga - 1 during the period of the remaing Cholas upto A.D.1250
